Background
Verified Service Provider in Chad

Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities in Chad Engineering Excellence & Technical Support

Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities solutions for Research & Discovery (R&D). High-standard technical execution following OEM protocols and local regulatory frameworks.

Talk To Sales

Advanced Research Laboratories

Equipped with state-of-the-art microscopy, genetic sequencing, and controlled environmental chambers to facilitate cutting-edge research in animal physiology and disease.

Species-Specific Housing Solutions

Custom-designed enclosures and habitats that replicate natural environments, ensuring the well-being and optimal health of diverse animal populations for research purposes.

Biosecurity and Health Monitoring Systems

Implementing rigorous biosecurity protocols and advanced health monitoring technologies to prevent disease transmission and ensure the integrity of research findings.

What Is Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities In Chad?

Vivarium and animal research facilities in Chad refer to specialized, controlled environments designed and operated for the housing, care, and use of live animals in scientific research, educational activities, and product testing. These facilities adhere to stringent ethical and regulatory standards to ensure the welfare of the animals while facilitating robust scientific inquiry. The core of such a service involves the provision of appropriate housing, husbandry, veterinary care, environmental controls (temperature, humidity, light cycles), and biosecurity measures. This encompasses everything from cage sanitation and waste disposal to specialized diets and health monitoring by qualified personnel. Researchers and institutions requiring these facilities are typically involved in fields such as biomedical research, drug development, disease studies, toxicology, and biological sciences, where in vivo models are essential for understanding biological processes, evaluating therapeutic interventions, and assessing the safety of various substances. Typical use cases include preclinical drug testing, infectious disease modeling, genetic research, behavioral studies, and the development of diagnostic tools. The operational integrity of these facilities is paramount for generating reproducible and reliable scientific data, as well as for upholding ethical commitments to animal welfare.

Stakeholder/User GroupNeeds & RequirementsTypical Use Cases
Biomedical Research Institutions (Universities, Research Centers)Access to healthy, well-maintained animals for preclinical studies; controlled experimental conditions; ethical compliance; specialized equipment; technical expertise.Drug efficacy and safety testing (pharmacology, toxicology); disease modeling (infectious diseases, cancer, neurological disorders); gene function studies; development of vaccines and diagnostic assays.
Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology CompaniesReliable and reproducible animal models for drug discovery and development; compliance with regulatory agency requirements (e.g., FDA, EMA); GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) compliant facilities.Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies; preclinical safety assessments; efficacy studies for new drug candidates; toxicology studies.
Government Agencies (Public Health, Agriculture)Research into zoonotic diseases; agricultural pest control studies; environmental impact assessments; development of public health interventions.Epidemiological studies on animal populations; development of veterinary medicines; research on animal welfare and husbandry; testing of agricultural chemicals.
Educational Institutions (Medical, Veterinary Schools)Training of students in animal handling, experimental techniques, and ethical considerations; support for student research projects.Anatomy and physiology labs; surgical training; student-led research projects; demonstration of biological principles.
Contract Research Organizations (CROs)Provision of vivarium services and expertise for clients in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and chemical industries; adherence to client-specific protocols and regulatory standards.Outsourced preclinical studies; specialized toxicology testing; custom research model development.

Key Components of Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities

  • Controlled Environmental Parameters: Regulation of temperature, humidity, light cycles, and air exchange rates.
  • Specialized Housing: Provision of appropriate caging systems and enclosures tailored to species-specific needs.
  • Husbandry and Sanitation: Routine cleaning, disinfection, and waste management protocols.
  • Nutritional Management: Provision of species-appropriate diets and water.
  • Veterinary Care and Health Monitoring: Regular health assessments, disease prevention, and treatment by qualified veterinarians and technicians.
  • Biosecurity Measures: Protocols to prevent the introduction and spread of infectious agents.
  • Ethical Oversight: Adherence to institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) guidelines or equivalent regulatory bodies.
  • Research Support Services: Assistance with experimental procedures, animal handling, and data collection.

Who Needs Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities In Chad?

Vivarium and animal research facilities are crucial for advancing scientific understanding, developing new medical treatments, and ensuring the safety of products in Chad. These facilities provide controlled environments for housing, breeding, and studying animals, which are indispensable models for a wide range of biological and biomedical research. Without them, crucial research that could lead to advancements in public health, agricultural innovation, and veterinary medicine would be significantly hampered.

Department/UnitKey Research AreasPotential Use of Vivarium
Medical Research Departments (e.g., Infectious Diseases, Oncology, Pharmacology)Studying disease mechanisms, testing drug efficacy and toxicity, developing new diagnostic tools.Housing experimental animals for in vivo studies, preclinical drug trials, disease modeling.
Public Health LaboratoriesDisease surveillance, vaccine efficacy testing, outbreak investigation, antimicrobial resistance studies.Animal models for testing vaccine effectiveness, simulating disease spread, identifying zoonotic pathogens.
Veterinary Schools/Research CentersAnimal disease research, development of veterinary medicines, livestock health management.Breeding and housing animals for research on endemic diseases, testing new treatments for livestock.
Agricultural Research InstitutesAnimal breeding programs, disease resistance studies in livestock, pest control research.Supporting research on animal genetics, nutrition, and disease prevention in agricultural settings.
Biotechnology Startups/IncubatorsDeveloping novel biological products, diagnostic kits, and therapeutic agents.Providing a regulated environment for early-stage preclinical testing of biotechnological innovations.
Environmental Science DepartmentsStudying the impact of environmental factors on animal health and ecosystems.Controlled studies on the effects of pollutants or other environmental agents on animal models.

Target Customers & Departments for Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities in Chad

  • {"title":"Academic & Research Institutions","description":"Universities, medical schools, and independent research centers conducting fundamental and applied scientific investigations."}
  • {"title":"Government Health Agencies","description":"Ministries of Health and their affiliated research arms focused on disease surveillance, drug efficacy testing, and public health interventions."}
  • {"title":"Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology Companies","description":"Local and international companies involved in drug discovery, development, and preclinical testing of new therapeutics and vaccines."}
  • {"title":"Agricultural Research & Development","description":"Institutions working on improving livestock health, crop protection, and understanding animal diseases relevant to agriculture."}
  • {"title":"Veterinary Medicine & Animal Health Services","description":"Colleges of veterinary medicine and organizations focused on diagnosing, treating, and preventing animal diseases, including those transmissible to humans."}
  • {"title":"Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)","description":"Organizations involved in public health initiatives, disease control programs, and humanitarian aid that may require animal models for testing interventions."}
  • {"title":"Regulatory Bodies","description":"Agencies responsible for approving new drugs, medical devices, and agricultural products, often requiring animal study data."}

Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities Process In Chad

The process for establishing and operating vivarium and animal research facilities in Chad involves several critical stages, from initial inquiry to the final execution of research protocols. This workflow is designed to ensure compliance with ethical standards, scientific rigor, and national regulations governing animal welfare and research.

PhaseKey ActivitiesResponsible PartiesDeliverables/Outcomes
Inquiry & Pre-Proposal PhaseResearchers identify the need for animal research, define research objectives, and identify potential vivarium resources. Initial consultations with national regulatory bodies and potential facility managers may occur.Principal Investigator (PI), Researchers, National Animal Welfare Authority (NAWA) representatives, Potential Facility ManagersClear research question, preliminary experimental design, understanding of regulatory landscape.
Proposal Submission & ReviewA detailed research proposal is drafted, including scientific justification, experimental methodology, animal species, numbers, housing, care, and euthanasia methods. The proposal is submitted to the relevant institutional review board (IRB) or ethics committee and potentially a national scientific committee.Principal Investigator (PI), Research Team, Institutional Review Board (IRB)/Ethics Committee, National Scientific CommitteeComprehensive research proposal, including budget and timeline.
Ethical & Regulatory ApprovalThe research proposal undergoes rigorous review by the IRB/Ethics Committee to ensure ethical treatment of animals, scientific validity, and adherence to national laws and guidelines. Approval is granted before any animal work commences.Institutional Review Board (IRB)/Ethics Committee, National Animal Welfare Authority (NAWA)Ethical approval certificate, confirmation of compliance with national regulations.
Facility Design & Construction/AcquisitionIf no suitable facility exists, a new vivarium is designed and constructed, or an existing one is adapted. This involves adhering to international standards for animal housing, biosecurity, ventilation, and waste management. If an existing facility is used, an assessment of its suitability is conducted.Architects, Engineers, Facility Managers, NAWA representatives, PIApproved facility design, construction permits, operational vivarium meeting safety and welfare standards.
Animal Acquisition & Health MonitoringAnimals are sourced from approved suppliers, ensuring proper health status. Upon arrival, animals undergo acclimatization and health monitoring. Detailed records of animal origins, health status, and individual identification are maintained.Vivarium Staff, Veterinarian, NAWA, Approved Animal SuppliersHealthy animal population, comprehensive animal health records, biosecurity protocols in place.
Research Execution & Data CollectionResearch procedures are carried out strictly according to the approved protocol by trained personnel. All experimental procedures, observations, and data are meticulously recorded. Regular veterinary oversight and welfare checks are performed.Research Team, Vivarium Staff, Veterinarian, NAWA (for oversight)Generated research data, ongoing animal welfare assessments, incident reports (if any).
Reporting & PublicationResearch findings are analyzed and reported. Results are published in peer-reviewed journals or presented at scientific conferences, adhering to ethical reporting guidelines. A final report may be submitted to regulatory bodies.Principal Investigator (PI), Research Team, NAWA (for final reporting)Published research findings, scientific reports.
Facility Maintenance & DecommissioningOngoing maintenance of the vivarium to ensure optimal environmental conditions and animal welfare. At the end of the project or facility's lifespan, a decommissioning plan is implemented, ensuring proper disposal of materials and animal populations in accordance with regulations.Facility Managers, Vivarium Staff, Veterinarian, NAWAWell-maintained facility, safe and ethical decommissioning process.

Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities Process in Chad: Workflow

  • Inquiry & Pre-Proposal Phase
  • Proposal Submission & Review
  • Ethical & Regulatory Approval
  • Facility Design & Construction/Acquisition
  • Animal Acquisition & Health Monitoring
  • Research Execution & Data Collection
  • Reporting & Publication
  • Facility Maintenance & Decommissioning

Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities Cost In Chad

Establishing and maintaining vivarium and animal research facilities in Chad involves a complex interplay of factors influencing costs. These costs are highly variable and depend on the scale of the facility, the types of animals housed, the sophistication of equipment, the availability of local resources, and the specific research protocols being implemented. General pricing is difficult to provide definitively due to the specialized nature of these facilities and the limited readily available public data for Chad. However, we can outline the key pricing factors and provide indicative ranges in local currency (Chadian Franc, XAF).

Key Pricing Factors:

  • Facility Construction/Renovation: The cost of building new facilities or renovating existing structures is a major component. This includes materials, labor, specialized architectural design for containment, ventilation, and climate control.
  • Specialized Equipment: This encompasses a wide range of items, from basic cages and housing to advanced environmental monitoring systems, surgical equipment, imaging devices, and sterilization units. The origin of the equipment (imported vs. locally sourced) significantly impacts cost.
  • Animal Acquisition & Husbandry: The cost of purchasing animals from reputable suppliers (if available locally or imported) and the ongoing expenses for feed, bedding, veterinary care, and enrichment.
  • Utilities & Infrastructure: Reliable electricity, water, and waste disposal are critical. The cost of these, especially with potential reliance on generators or water purification systems, can be substantial.
  • Staffing: Highly trained personnel are essential, including veterinarians, animal technicians, researchers, and facility managers. Salaries and benefits will vary.
  • Consumables & Reagents: This includes laboratory supplies, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, disinfectants, and other recurring operational expenses.
  • Regulatory Compliance & Licensing: Costs associated with obtaining permits, adhering to ethical guidelines, and ensuring biosecurity.
  • Import Duties & Taxes: For imported equipment, animals, and specialized supplies, these can add a significant percentage to the overall cost.
  • Maintenance & Repairs: Ongoing upkeep of the facility and equipment is crucial for sustained operation and animal welfare.
  • Security: Protecting valuable research materials and animals may necessitate security measures.

Indicative Cost Ranges (in Chadian Francs - XAF):

It is imperative to understand that these are very broad estimates and can fluctuate dramatically. These figures are intended to provide a general sense of scale rather than precise quotes.

  • Small-Scale / Basic Research Setups (e.g., for academic institutions or limited projects):
*   **Initial Setup (Minimalist):** 5,000,000 XAF - 20,000,000 XAF (primarily for basic housing, minimal equipment, initial animal stock).
*   **Annual Operating Costs:** 2,000,000 XAF - 10,000,000 XAF (feed, bedding, basic veterinary supplies, utilities).
  • Medium-Scale / Standard Research Facilities (e.g., for dedicated research centers or larger projects):
*   **Initial Setup:** 50,000,000 XAF - 200,000,000 XAF (includes more robust construction, better equipment, advanced climate control, larger animal housing).
*   **Annual Operating Costs:** 15,000,000 XAF - 50,000,000 XAF (comprehensive veterinary care, specialized diets, higher utility consumption, ongoing consumables).
  • Large-Scale / State-of-the-Art Facilities (e.g., for advanced biomedical research, significant breeding programs):
*   **Initial Setup:** 500,000,000 XAF - 1,000,000,000+ XAF (high-spec construction, cutting-edge equipment, complex environmental systems, sophisticated containment, significant land acquisition).
*   **Annual Operating Costs:** 100,000,000 XAF - 500,000,000+ XAF (highly specialized staff, advanced diagnostics, extensive research reagents, large animal populations, complex waste management).

Important Considerations for Chad:

  • Import Dependency: A significant portion of specialized equipment and even some animal feed may need to be imported, incurring substantial shipping, customs duties, and potential delays.
  • Local Expertise: The availability of skilled technicians and veterinarians experienced in vivarium management and animal research may be limited, potentially requiring recruitment from abroad or extensive local training.
  • Infrastructure Stability: Reliable power and water supply can be a challenge, necessitating investment in backup generators, water storage, and purification systems, which adds to both capital and operational costs.
  • Security: Depending on the location and the nature of the research, security might be a significant cost factor.
  • Currency Fluctuation: While the XAF is pegged to the Euro, any significant global economic shifts could indirectly impact the cost of imported goods and services.

For accurate and up-to-date pricing, detailed quotes from local construction firms, equipment suppliers (both international and any local distributors), and veterinary service providers are essential. Engaging with research institutions or government bodies that have experience in establishing such facilities in Chad would also provide invaluable insights.

Facility ScaleIndicative Initial Setup Cost (XAF)Indicative Annual Operating Cost (XAF)
Small-Scale / Basic5,000,000 - 20,000,0002,000,000 - 10,000,000
Medium-Scale / Standard50,000,000 - 200,000,00015,000,000 - 50,000,000
Large-Scale / State-of-the-Art500,000,000 - 1,000,000,000+100,000,000 - 500,000,000+

Key Cost Drivers for Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities in Chad

  • Facility Construction & Renovation
  • Specialized Equipment Acquisition
  • Animal Acquisition & Ongoing Husbandry
  • Utilities & Infrastructure Reliability
  • Qualified Staffing & Personnel Costs
  • Consumables, Reagents, & Veterinary Supplies
  • Regulatory Compliance & Licensing Fees
  • Import Duties, Taxes, & Logistics
  • Regular Maintenance, Repairs, & Upkeep
  • Facility Security Measures

Affordable Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities Options

Establishing and maintaining vivarium and animal research facilities can be a significant investment. This guide explores affordable options, value bundles, and cost-saving strategies to help research institutions and individuals manage their budgets effectively while ensuring high-quality animal care and research environments.

Value Bundle TypeDescriptionPotential Cost SavingsKey Components
Basic Research SetupEssential caging, ventilation, and basic environmental controls for common research species.20-35% compared to standalone purchases.Standard rodent caging, HEPA-filtered racks, basic temperature/humidity controllers, small autoclave.
Advanced Specimen HousingIncludes specialized caging for non-rodent species, enhanced environmental monitoring, and biosecurity features.15-25% compared to purchasing individually.Primate cages, amphibian/reptile enclosures, real-time environmental sensors, negative/positive pressure rooms.
Integrated Sterilization & DecontaminationBundled autoclaves, cage washers, and disinfection stations for efficient and compliant sanitation.10-20% on equipment and operational efficiency gains.Multiple capacity autoclaves, high-pressure cage washers, chemical disinfectants, automated washing systems.
Energy-Efficient Facility PackageFocuses on reducing operational energy costs through smart HVAC, LED lighting, and optimized airflow.15-25% on utility bills annually.Variable speed drives for ventilation, smart thermostats, energy-efficient lighting fixtures, integrated building management systems.
Startup Research KitComprehensive package for new labs, including essential furniture, basic equipment, and initial consumables.25-40% off typical startup costs.Lab benches, stools, basic caging, initial bedding and feed, basic cleaning supplies.

Key Considerations for Affordable Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities

  • Understanding the Scope: Clearly define your research needs, the types of animals you will house, and the required environmental conditions.
  • Modular vs. Custom Design: Explore the cost-effectiveness of modular vivarium systems compared to fully custom-built facilities.
  • Phased Implementation: Consider building out your facility in phases as your research grows, rather than attempting to build the full capacity upfront.
  • Pre-owned Equipment: Investigate the availability and condition of quality pre-owned vivarium equipment, such as caging, ventilation, and sterilization units.
  • Consumables Management: Implement efficient purchasing and inventory management for bedding, feed, and other consumables.
  • Energy Efficiency: Prioritize energy-efficient lighting, HVAC systems, and equipment to reduce long-term operational costs.
  • Outsourcing Non-Core Functions: Evaluate the cost-benefit of outsourcing services like waste disposal, sterilization, or specialized animal care.
  • Technological Integration: Leverage technology for monitoring, data logging, and automation to improve efficiency and reduce labor needs.
  • Collaboration and Shared Resources: Explore opportunities for sharing facilities or specialized equipment with other institutions or departments.

Verified Providers In Chad

In Chad's evolving healthcare landscape, identifying reliable and accredited medical facilities is paramount for individuals seeking quality care. "Verified Providers in Chad" shines a spotlight on those who have met stringent criteria, ensuring patient safety and service excellence. Among these, Franance Health stands out. Their commitment to adhering to international standards, coupled with a deep understanding of the local healthcare needs, positions them as a premier choice.

Credential/FeatureFranance Health's AttainmentBenefit to Patients
International Health Standards ComplianceActively adheres to globally recognized healthcare benchmarks.Ensures a high level of safety, efficacy, and professionalism in all services.
Certified Medical ProfessionalsAll practitioners are licensed, certified, and undergo regular professional development.Guarantees that patients receive care from competent and up-to-date medical experts.
Advanced Medical EquipmentInvests in modern diagnostic and treatment technologies.Facilitates accurate diagnoses and more effective treatment outcomes.
Robust Patient Safety ProtocolsImplements strict protocols for infection control, data privacy, and emergency preparedness.Minimizes risks and ensures a secure healthcare experience for every patient.
Community Health IntegrationActively participates in local health initiatives and education.Contributes to the overall health and well-being of the Chadian community.

Why Franance Health is the Best Choice:

  • Rigorous Accreditation and Verification: Franance Health undergoes a comprehensive verification process, ensuring all their facilities and medical professionals meet high standards of competence and ethical practice.
  • Commitment to Quality Care: They prioritize patient well-being through advanced medical technologies, evidence-based practices, and a highly skilled, continuously trained workforce.
  • Patient-Centric Approach: Franance Health fosters a supportive and transparent environment, ensuring patients are informed and involved in their treatment plans.
  • Accessibility and Reach: With a network of strategically located centers, Franance Health strives to make quality healthcare accessible to a wider population across Chad.
  • Specialized Services: Offering a range of specialized medical services, they cater to diverse healthcare needs, from primary care to more complex treatments.

Scope Of Work For Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities

This Scope of Work (SOW) outlines the requirements for the design, construction, and commissioning of Vivarium and Animal Research Facilities. It details the technical deliverables expected from the selected vendor and provides standard specifications to ensure the facilities meet stringent regulatory, ethical, and operational standards for animal welfare and research integrity.

CategorySpecification TitleKey Requirements/ConsiderationsRelevant Standards/Guidelines
Facility DesignGeneral Layout and ZoningSegregation of species, clean/dirty corridors, workflow optimization, containment levels (BSL, ABSL).AAALAC International Standards, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, relevant national/local building codes.
HVAC SystemEnvironmental ControlTemperature (±1°C), humidity (±5%), air changes per hour (ACH) per room type, positive/negative pressure differentials, HEPA filtration (supply and exhaust).ASHRAE Standards, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Plumbing & WaterWater Quality and DistributionPotable water systems (specific quality requirements for research), automated watering systems, eyewash stations, sterilization capabilities.NSF/ANSI Standards, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.
Waste ManagementDisposal SystemsDesignated waste streams (biohazardous, general, animal bedding), containment, sterilization (autoclaving), safe transport.EPA Regulations, OSHA Standards, local health department guidelines.
Animal CagingHousing and EnrichmentAppropriate cage size, materials, ventilation, bedding, environmental enrichment devices, ease of cleaning, security.Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, species-specific recommendations.
LightingIllumination Levels and ControlAdequate light levels for procedures and welfare, dimmable controls, consideration of circadian rhythms.Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, relevant lighting standards.
Safety & SecurityAccess Control and MonitoringControlled access to animal areas, emergency power, fire suppression, spill containment, video surveillance.OSHA Standards, NFPA Codes, facility-specific security protocols.
Infection ControlSanitation and SterilizationSurfaces resistant to cleaning agents, autoclave availability and capacity, handwashing stations, UV sterilization options.CDC Guidelines, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.

Technical Deliverables

  • Detailed Architectural and Engineering Design Drawings (including CAD files)
  • MEP (Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing) Design and Calculations
  • HVAC System Design with Airflow, Pressure, and Filtration Specifications
  • Plumbing and Drainage System Designs (including waste disposal)
  • Electrical System Designs (including backup power and emergency systems)
  • Lighting Design (appropriate lux levels and spectrum for animal species)
  • Security System Designs (access control, surveillance)
  • IT and Network Infrastructure Design
  • Material and Equipment Specifications (including animal caging, racks, and enrichment)
  • Commissioning Plan and Reports
  • Validation Reports for all critical systems (HVAC, water, etc.)
  • As-Built Drawings and Documentation
  • O&M Manuals and Training for Facility Staff
  • Project Management Plan and Progress Reports
  • Risk Assessment and Mitigation Plan
  • Permitting and Regulatory Compliance Documentation

Service Level Agreement For Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities

This Service Level Agreement (SLA) outlines the response times and uptime guarantees for the Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities. It defines the expected levels of service, responsibilities of both parties, and remedies in case of service failures.

Service CategoryResponse Time (Critical)Response Time (Non-Critical)Uptime Guarantee
Environmental Control Systems (HVAC, lighting)1 hour4 business hours99.5% (annual average)
Water Systems1 hour4 business hours99.5% (annual average)
Animal Husbandry (daily checks, feeding, watering)Immediate (during operating hours)2 business hoursN/A (continuous operation)
Cage Cleaning & Waste RemovalAs scheduled (typically daily)4 business hours (for urgent requests)N/A (continuous operation)
Emergency Animal Welfare IssuesImmediateN/AN/A
IT Systems (for vivarium management software)2 business hours8 business hours99.0% (annual average)

Scope of Services

  • Maintenance and operation of all vivarium systems, including environmental controls (temperature, humidity, ventilation), lighting, and water systems.
  • Provision of husbandry services, including daily checks, feeding, watering, cage cleaning, and waste removal.
  • Management and maintenance of animal inventory and records.
  • Emergency response for critical equipment failures or animal welfare concerns.
  • Support for research-related needs, as defined in specific research protocols and service requests.
In-Depth Guidance

Frequently Asked Questions

Background
Phase 02: Execution

Ready when you are

Let's scope your Vivarium & Animal Research Facilities in Chad project in Chad.

Speak to Sales